Oogenesis and Spermatogenesis

  

Mitosis

The Cell Cycle

+ refers to cycle of growth that result in formation of new cells

Prophase

+ centrioles migrate
+ chromosome condense
+ nucleolus disappears
+ nuclear membrane disintegrate
+ spindle fibres form and attach to chromosome

Metaphase

+ chromosomes align at the equatorial/metaphase plate

Anaphase

+ centromeres divide
+ sister chromatids move toward opposite poles

Telophase

+ spindle fibres disappear
+ chromosomes uncoil
+ nuclear membrane and nucleolus re-appear

Cytokinesis

+ cleavage furrow divides into two identical daughter cells

Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration

The Similarities

+ both are cellular respiration
+ both involve breakdown of glucose
+ both release energy 
+ both catalyzed by enzyme

Comparison between Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration

Aerobic Respiration	Differences	Anaerobic Respiration
Oxygen is present	Oxygen	Oxygen is absent
Complete oxidation of glucose	Oxidation of Glucose	Incomplete oxidation of glucose
Carbon dioxide, water and energy	Products of Respiration	Lactic acid and energy (muscle cell) Ethanol, carbon dioxide and energy(yeast)
38 molecules of ATP	Number of ATP released	2 molecules of ATP
2898KJ	Amount of energy released	150KJ(muscle cells) 210KJ(fermentation)
Mitochondria	Process take place	Cytoplasm

Mechanism of Photosynthesis

Light Reaction

Chlorophyll captures light energy
> excites the electron
> electron leave the chlorophyll molecules

Light energy(Photolysis of Water)
> split water molecules into hydrogen/hydroxyl ions
> hydrogen ions combine with electrons(chlorophyll) to form hydrogen atoms
> energy from the excited electron is used to form ATP
> hydroxyl ions loses electron to form hydoxyl group
> hydroxyl group combine to form water/oxygen
> ATP provide energy and hydrogen atoms provide reducing power for dark reaction

Dark Reaction(Calvin Cycle)

> light independent
> hydrogen atom are used to fix carbon dioxide
> Result: reduction of carbon dioxide into glucose
> glucose undergo condensation to form starch

Equation

6 CO₂ + 12 H₂O + light energy --> C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6 O₂ + 6 H₂O

Schematic Diagram

Comparison Light and Dark Reaction 

Light Reaction	Differences	Dark Reaction
Photolytic reaction	Type of reaction	Series of bio-chemical reactions
Day	Time of reaction	Day and night
Grana	Site of reaction	Stroma
Water	Substance required for reaction	Carbon dioxide
Oxygen and water	Products of reaction	Glucose and water
Occurs	Photolysis of water	Does not occur
Required	Light energy	Not required
Forms ATP and hydrogen atoms	ATP and hydrogen atoms	Uses ATP and hydrogen atoms

LOGIC GATE

+ automatic switch
+ more than 1 input
+ output = 1

NOT Gate (Output=A')

Input    Output

   A          X

   0           1

   1           0

AND Gate (Output=X.Y)

Input    Output

X   Y            

0    0        0

0    1        0

1    0        0

1    1        1

OR Gate (Output=X+Y)

Input    Output

X   Y   

0    0        0

0    1        1

1    0        1

1    1        1

NAND Gate (A.B)'

Input    Output

X   Y    A   B

0    0     0   1

0    1     0   1

1    0     0   1

1    1     1   0

NOR Gate (Output=A+B)'

Input    Output

A   B    F   X

0    0    0    1

0    1    1    0

1    0    1    0

1    1    1    0


X-OR Gate

Colour of SALTS

Salt	Solid	Aqueous
Copper (II) Oxide	Black	Not Soluble
Copper (II) Carbonate	Green	Not Soluble
Copper (II) Sulphate	Blue	Blue
Copper (II) Chloride	Blue	Blue
Iron (II) Sulphate	Light Green	Light Green
Iron (II) Nitrate	Light Green	Light Green
Iron (II) Chloride	Light Green	Light Green
Iron (III) Sulphate	Yellow/Brown	Yellow/Brown
Iron (III) Nitrate	Yellow/Brown	Yellow/Brown
Iron (III) Chloride	Yellow/Brown	Yellow/Brown
Zinc Oxide	Yellow(Hot)/White(Cold)	Not Soluble
Lead (II) Oxide	Brown(Hot)/Yellow(Cold)	Not Soluble
Potassium Oxide	White	Colorless
Magnesium Oxide	White	Not Soluble
Aluminum Oxide	White	Not Soluble

SALTS

A salt is a substance formed when hydrogen ions of an acid are partially or completely replaced by metal ions or ammonium ions

Solubility of Salts

Preparation of Salts

+ Acid + Metal Oxide        >  Salt + Water
+ Acid + Active Metals      >  Salt + Hydrogen Gas
+ Acid + Metal Carbonate >  Salt + Water + Carbon Dioxide

Preparation of Soluble Salts

+ Acid + Alkali > Salt + Water